Saints and sinners: Triumphs, scandals, and wars of the papacy
MANILA, Philippines — For nearly two millennia, the papacy has shaped world history, standing at the intersection of faith, politics, and power.
From its humble beginnings with St. Peter to its modern incarnation as a global spiritual authority, the office of the Pope has seen both saints and sinners, reformers and warmongers.
The papacy’s history is one of triumph, scandal, and intrigue, reflecting the Church’s enduring role in shaping civilizations, confronting crises, and navigating complex moral and political dilemmas.
READ: Conclave: The secret process of selecting a new pope
The five eras of the Papacy
- Early Papacy: The church under fire
Christianity was once an outlawed faith, and the first Popes led their followers in secrecy, facing brutal persecution from the Roman Empire. Many early Popes, such as Pope Clement I and Pope Sixtus II, were martyred for their faith.
A turning point came with Emperor Constantine’s Edict of Milan (313 AD), which legalized Christianity and allowed the Church to flourish. By the time of the First Council of Nicaea (325 AD), the Bishop of Rome had begun gaining influence, laying the foundation for what would become the papacy.
- Medieval Papacy: The church as a kingdom
With the fall of the Western Roman Empire in 476 AD, the Pope became a central figure in European politics.
Pope Gregory I (590–604 AD) played a key role in stabilizing Rome, organizing aid for the poor, and spreading Christianity to Germanic tribes. Over time, Popes ruled vast territories known as the Papal States, turning the Church into a political powerhouse.
However, the papacy was not without turmoil. The Great Schism (1054) permanently split Christianity into the Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Churches.
Later, the Avignon Papacy (1309–1377), during which the Pope was moved to France under the influence of French monarchs, weakened the papacy’s credibility. The Western Schism (1378–1417) further divided Christendom, with multiple claimants to the papal throne vying for legitimacy.
Renaissance and Reformation Papacy: Art and corruption
The Renaissance Popes, including Pope Julius II (1503–1513) and Pope Leo X (1513–1521), were great patrons of the arts, funding masterpieces like Michelangelo’s Sistine Chapel ceiling.
However, their extravagance and the widespread selling of indulgences — payments for the forgiveness of sins — sparked Martin Luther’s Protestant Reformation in 1517.
The Church responded with the Counter-Reformation, reaffirming its doctrines at the Council of Trent (1545–1563) while attempting to curb corruption.
- Modern Papacy: Loss of power, gain of influence
By the 19th century, the Pope had lost control of the Papal States due to Italy's unification. Pope Pius XI signed the Lateran Treaty of 1929, which established Vatican City as an independent state. This marked a shift from territorial rule to moral and spiritual authority.
The 20th century saw Popes navigate major global crises. Pope Pius XII (1939–1958) during World War II and Pope John XXIII (1958–1963) initiated the Second Vatican Council (1962–1965), which modernized the Church’s approach to worship and engagement with the world.
- Contemporary Papacy: The Pope in a globalized world
Today, the papacy serves as a spiritual and diplomatic force.
Pope John Paul II (1978–2005) played a key role in the fall of communism in Eastern Europe, while Pope Francis (2013–present) focused on social justice, climate change, and economic inequality, often breaking from tradition to address modern global issues.
Popes who resigned
Despite his long reign, Pius IX was a controversial figure, often seen as rigid and opposed to modernization. Yet, his papacy cemented the spiritual independence of the Pope, shifting the role of the papacy away from political rule and toward moral leadership. John Paul II’s long tenure was partly due to his strong health in his early years and the charismatic leadership that kept him influential even as he battled Parkinson’s disease in his later years. Based on historical accounts, Leo XIII was able to serve for so long because he focused on diplomacy and dialogue rather than political battles. His ability to adapt to modern times without radically altering Church doctrine helped him maintain stability throughout his reign. Historians noted that Pius VI’s papacy demonstrated that even a long-serving Pope could face profound political and personal hardships, and his struggles foreshadowed the eventual loss of the Papal States in the 19th century. Hadrian’s long papacy was due to strong alliances with secular rulers who ensured his continued leadership and the relative stability of his time compared to later, more turbulent eras. He personally donned armor and led campaigns to reclaim lost papal territories, solidifying his reputation as a military-minded pontiff. His formation of the Holy League, which included Spain and Venice, demonstrated his commitment to securing Italy’s independence from French control. However, critics — including Erasmus — questioned the contradiction between the Pope’s spiritual role and his military ambitions, famously asking, "What have the helmet and mitre in common?" His focus on family enrichment led to an excommunication of the ruling duke and the imposition of heavy taxation across the Papal States to finance the war. The endeavor drained the Vatican’s treasury, contributing to the financial instability that later fueled the Protestant Reformation. Tuchman stressed that Clement’s strategic failures and his reluctance to defend the city left Rome vulnerable to one of its most devastating attacks. (2025/03/03-09:00)
Traditionally, the Pope is expected to serve for life, symbolizing Christ’s unwavering presence at the helm of the Church. However, history has seen rare cases where Popes have voluntarily stepped down, often under extraordinary circumstances.
READ: When a pope resigns
Longest-serving Popes
While some Popes served only a few months or years, others remained in office for decades, leaving an indelible mark on Church history.
Their long reigns were often a result of strong leadership, political stability, and, sometimes, the sheer longevity of the individual Pope. The list of some of the longest-serving Popes include:
Antipopes: The rival Popes
At various points in history, political interference, Church conflicts, and internal divisions have led to the emergence of antipopes—rival claimants to the papacy who were elected by factions opposed to the reigning Pope.
Antipopes often emerged during times of political upheaval, some of them wielded considerable influence, shaping Church politics and causing long-lasting divisions. Among the key events and figures include:
Popes who led armies in conquest
While the Pope is traditionally seen as a spiritual leader, history has seen several pontiffs who took a decidedly militaristic approach to their rule, leading armies into battle and engaging in territorial conflicts.
According to The March of Folly, the Renaissance period saw a particularly stark blending of the papacy with secular power, as popes sought to expand and defend their temporal domains, including:
The repeated military ventures of popes in the Renaissance era had lasting consequences. As noted by Tuchman in The March of Folly, the papacy became deeply entangled in European wars, often at the cost of its spiritual authority.
Despite their military exploits, these popes ultimately failed to create a lasting and stable papal monarchy. Their wars may have won temporary territorial gains, but they also weakened the Vatican’s moral standing and financial stability, fueling internal and external crises that would shape the course of Church history.
The most popular and the most infamous Popes
Some Popes have been widely loved and admired for their moral courage, reforms, and compassionate leadership:
However, not all Popes have been models of virtue — some were outright tyrants, corrupt, or scandalous:
Scandals involving wealth, power, and lust
While many Popes have been beacons of faith and moral authority, the history of the papacy is not without its darker chapters. Corruption, greed, and even immorality have plagued certain pontiffs.
More recently, the Catholic Church has faced global scandals involving clergy abuse, with evidence of decades-long cover-ups by Church leadership. Pope Francis has taken a more active stance on addressing these crises, but many believe structural reforms are still needed to fully restore trust.
The cadaver synod: A dead Pope put on trial
Perhaps the most bizarre episode in papal history, the Cadaver Synod (897 AD) saw Pope Stephen VI exhuming the body of his predecessor, Pope Formosus, and putting him on a posthumous trial.
The decaying corpse, dressed in papal robes, was accused of perjury and stripped of its titles before being thrown into the Tiber River.
Some accounts report that Stephen VI ordered the corpse of his predecessor to have three fingers of his right hand amputated — symbolically severing the blessing hand used for consecrations — before having the body reburied in a common grave.
The grotesque spectacle shocked the Church and led to instability within the papacy, ultimately leading to Stephen VI’s swift downfall.
The female Pope: Fact or fiction?
One of the most debated legends in papal history is that of Pope Joan, a woman who allegedly disguised herself as a man and was elected Pope in the 9th century.
According to the tale, she was only discovered when she gave birth in public. While most historians dismiss this as medieval fiction, the story persists, capturing imaginations for centuries.
Graphics by Ed Lustan/Inquirer.net. Sources: Encyclopædia Britannica, Wikimedia Commons, INQUIRER.net news archive
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- 01/17 02:34 BSP eyes PH shift to coin-lite society
- 01/17 02:32 UAE’s Masdar commits $15-B investment in PH renewable projects
- 01/17 02:20 DoubleDragon eyes P10-B retail bond issuance
- 01/16 10:49 Ransomware incidents increased by 11% in 2024, says Check Point
- 01/16 09:49 Poe asks Senate to probe dismal collection of SSS
- 01/16 09:42 Vatican AI laws: A Catholic approach to tech regulation
- 01/16 05:32 Marcos, Duterte, other execs’ satisfaction ratings down
- 01/16 05:30 A first: Comelec discards 6M ballots costing P132M
- 01/16 02:30 Weaker peso curbed remittances in November
- 01/15 17:18 Whoscall app: The PH had 6 million text scam messages in 2024
- 01/15 11:29 Marcos sympathizes with victims of California wildfires
- 01/15 10:58 Husband held in killing of Filipina in Slovenia, says DFA
- 01/15 05:37 PNP defends self after DILG chief smells ‘conspiracy’
- 01/15 02:18 BMI: Peso fall below 60 vs $1 still possible
- 01/15 02:14 PH vehicle sales hit fresh record high in 2024
- 01/14 19:42 Comelec suspends printing of ballots for 2025 polls
- 01/14 16:05 Contingency plans in place vs China reclamation in Scarborough - Navy
- 01/14 11:42 Marcos still firmly against VP Duterte’s impeachment - Palace
- 01/14 10:26 Credit card skimmers: How to spot and protect yourself against them
- 01/14 10:19 Philippine AI regulations and its high-tech future
- 01/14 05:00 PH, Japan, US confident of growing trilateral ties
- 01/14 02:12 PSEi tumbles to near 7-month low
- 01/14 02:10 SEC tightens disclosure rules on auditor fees
- 01/13 13:59 PH lodges protest vs China for illegal Coast Guard presence in EEZ
- 01/13 11:30 Marcos, Biden, Ishiba pledge stronger trilateral ties in phone call
- 01/13 10:23 WEF says 41% of companies will reduce workforces due to AI by 2030
- 01/13 09:21 How to spot and avoid YouTube comment scams
- 01/13 05:50 DOF: Gov’t not shortchanging LGUs in share of national taxes
- 01/13 05:30 PDIC to hike bank deposit protection
- 01/13 02:09 MVP Group inks 25-year Camp John Hay lease, BCDA’s first
- 01/13 02:07 Renewables dominate pipeline of new power projects in 2025
- 01/12 05:10 EJ Obiena focused on vaulting back to lofty ranking
- 01/10 05:46 BIR: P40B in excise taxes lost due to illicit cigarette, vape trade
- 01/10 05:40 AFP chief: Electing ‘right people,’ not coups, can fix PH problems
- 01/10 05:30 Binays cleared in P1.3-B school ‘overprice’ case
- 01/10 02:30 PH trims trade deficit amid import slump
- 01/10 02:28 BSP eyes shift from digital transaction fees to subscription
- 01/09 23:10 PH ship challenges Chinese vessels off Zambales due to illegal presence
- 01/09 14:43 Comelec: Government aid belongs to Filipinos, not politicians
- 01/09 12:01 NVIDIA Project DIGITS puts an AI supercomputer at your fingertips
- 01/09 11:06 Tech advances, other factors to shape PH labor market until 2030
- 01/09 08:51 Record-high gov’t debt spooks investors
- 01/09 05:50 As ‘monster’ leaves, new Chinese ship takes its place off Zambales
- 01/09 05:32 Gov’t to push for flexible work setups this year
- 01/09 02:28 Peso seen falling below 59:$1 by Q2
- 01/09 02:14 Competition heating up in e-money industry, says BMI research
- 01/08 15:52 9 China Coast Guard vessels patrolling PH EEZ – US maritime expert
- 01/08 14:21 284 HMPV cases logged in PH in 2024; virus mild, not new – DOH
- 01/08 12:08 PH digital lending market seen to exceed $1 billion in 2025
- 01/08 09:17 Facebook, Instagram to ditch fact-checking for community notes
- 01/08 07:17 Open-world games can boost mental health, says study
- 01/08 05:30 ‘Above normal’ rainfall, more typhoons seen January to March
- 01/08 04:40 Many tourists take bus to Baguio amid traffic woes, says mayor
- 01/08 02:10 December inflation sped up to 2.9%, fastest in 4 months
- 01/08 02:05 New high: Gov’t debt topped P16 trillion in November
- 01/07 15:30 Suspected Chinese drone ‘non-operational’ when recovered – Navy
- 01/07 05:55 PH starts temporary hosting of 300 Afghans
- 01/07 05:50 ‘Monster’ still in PH waters, ignores PCG call to leave
- 01/07 05:40 Rights advocates urge US Congress urged to reconsider bill vs ICC
- 01/07 05:00 NSC: No proof yet China behind crashed drone
- 01/07 02:10 John Hay on lockdown as BCDA takes over
- 01/07 02:05 Meralco bags deal to build 600-MW gas plant in Singapore
- 01/06 15:31 NSC restructuring not a sign of rift in security sector – Malaya
- 01/06 13:40 China’s ‘monster ship’ off Zambales an act of aggression – NSC
- 01/06 12:11 New transfer system needed for Filipino prisoners abroad – solon
- 01/06 12:06 BCDA revenues hit P11B in 2024
- 01/06 11:15 PhilRice announces new rice varieties that can lower blood sugar
- 01/06 09:00 How to quit social media for a much-needed digital detox
- 01/06 07:56 PH firms must brace for AI-powered attacks
- 01/06 05:35 More endorsers back 4th impeachment rap vs VP Duterte
- 01/06 05:32 PCG sends ship, 2 aircraft to challenge ‘The Monster’
- 01/06 05:30 US to stay ‘laser-focused’ on PH-China maritime issues
- 01/06 05:25 Opposition mounts vs SSS premium hike
- 01/06 02:10 DBS raises PH GDP growth forecast to 5.8%
- 01/05 19:35 Ex-president also excluded Robredo from NSC – Tañada to Duterte allies
- 01/05 13:42 Rights group calls for ‘greater vigilance’ in 2025, alleges violations
- 01/05 05:41 AFP vows loyalty to flag after Marcos revamp of NSC
- 01/05 05:35 DOST: This smart pen for kids can help tell if they’re troubled
- 01/05 02:15 PH aspires to be next green power paradise
- 01/04 10:03 VP Duterte’s removal from NSC marks intense political conflict – Castro
- 01/04 05:30 BI hunts down 11,000 foreign Pogo workers still in PH
- 01/04 02:10 New year, new jets for rich Filipinos
- 01/03 16:09 Chinese embassy in PH dismisses rumors of new disease outbreak in China
- 01/03 14:57 Marcos reorganizes NSC, removes VP as member due to irrelevance
- 01/03 13:47 Oreo maker Mondelez uses AI to create new snack flavors
- 01/03 10:00 DOH verifying alleged 'international health concern'
- 01/03 08:36 BI: 22,609 Pogo workers leave PH; 11,000 others for deportation
- 01/03 07:47 China develops a self-lightening backpack
- 01/03 05:40 ‘Chinese’ drone retrieved from Masbate waters piques Navy
- 01/03 05:19 As PBA enters 50th year, will four-point shot stay?
- 01/03 02:14 SEC drafts rules on crypto services
- 01/03 02:12 DigiPlus secures Brazil license
- 01/02 10:56 Filipino scientists made concrete blocks with coffee grounds
- 01/02 05:38 OSG: Pogo asset seizures, birth records purge next
- 01/02 05:32 Northern Luzon at risk of more quakes
- 01/02 05:25 PH ambassador to Hungary is latest Marcos appointee
- 01/02 05:21 Ecozone eyed as naval base site in Mindanao
- 01/02 02:15 IMF asks BSP to disclose info on balance sheet strategy
- 01/02 02:10 1st round of PH-Chile FTA talks set for March
- 01/01 22:45 Marbil vows ’tech-driven, apolitical’ PNP in 2025
- 01/01 18:15 PH Ambassador Romualdez to attend Trump inauguration – Palace
- 01/01 05:39 Budget critics: Veto still left ‘pork’ intact
- 12/31 12:06 OCD gears up for another Mt. Kanlaon eruption
- 12/31 05:40 Vice, gore: A peek into the sinister world of Pogo traffickers
- 12/31 05:35 Panfilo Lacson to gov’t: Brace for legal challenge vs 2025 budget
- 12/31 02:08 An upper middle-income nation by 2025? What PH is bound to lose
- 12/31 02:02 Philippine telcos ramp up cybersecurity efforts
- 12/30 14:56 ‘Broken from start’, UniTeam sees complete collapse
- 12/30 13:07 Marcos pays tribute to late former US President Jimmy Carter
- 12/30 09:33 Marcos signs P6.3 trillion 2025 national budget, vetoes P194 billion
- 12/30 05:20 Filipino booters look to clinch a first-ever Asean Cup finals berth
- 12/30 02:30 PH home prices contract for first time in 3 years
- 12/30 02:28 PH attracts net ‘hot money’ inflow of $96.59M in Nov
- 12/24 21:09 Watch out for crypto scams this Christmas – CICC
- 12/22 05:50 BFAR plane tells Chinese Navy: ‘Review your chart!’
- 12/22 05:38 AFP trusts President Marcos, system, says Brawner
- 12/22 05:30 Marcos, VP Duterte ratings down as poll reflects inflation woes
- 12/22 02:22 Woke but confused: Holidays leave adulting Filipinos financially bipolar
- 12/20 10:37 6 power projects endorsed for operating permits
- 12/20 05:52 Marcos: Let DOJ handle House move vs Rodrigo Duterte
- 12/20 05:48 PNP partners with TikTok vs online scams, exploitation
- 12/20 05:42 SC fires judge involved in wife’s illegal deals
- 12/20 05:34 3rd impeach rap filed vs VP Duterte; Leni Robredo ally an endorser
- 12/20 05:04 Golf club members join legal battle in Camp John Hay
- 12/20 02:24 Balance of payments deficit grew to widest in over 2 years
- 12/19 16:06 Sovereignty, accountability, and hope: Key Philippine stories of 2024
- 12/19 13:47 Blueleaf ramps up Laguna floating solar deployment
- 12/19 09:39 PH bracing for foreign bond comeback in H1 2025
- 12/19 09:22 Vietnam learns lesson about China aggression – everyone’s a target
- 12/19 05:42 8,000 foreign Pogo workers still in PH with tourist visas, says BI
- 12/19 05:30 House tags Duterte, et al. for ‘crimes against humanity’
- 12/19 04:32 ‘Decarbonizing’ PH a race against time – but ‘we should do it properly’
- 12/19 02:28 Marcos-Duterte clash to hurt economy – Fitch
- 12/19 02:12 Holiday online shopping fraud ‘alarmingly high’ in PH
- 12/18 12:58 Neda Board approves issuance of EO on PH-Korea free trade deal
- 12/18 10:13 Blockchain Game Alliance Report shows organic Web3 gaming growth
- 12/18 09:34 DepEd budget expose billions in unspent funds
- 12/18 09:12 Prisoner swap pacts with other nations eyed after Veloso’s return
- 12/18 05:50 House OKs bill that lets foreigners lease land for 99 years
- 12/18 05:10 PhilHealth P500-B fund investment questioned
- 12/17 14:13 DTI revising regulations for vape products
- 12/17 12:25 AFP: Yearend WPS resupply, Noche Buena delivery missions successful
- 12/17 10:05 Peza expects approved investments to rise by 10% in 2025
- 12/17 09:56 Shadowy uranium trade reaches PH, raises fear of ‘dirty bomb’
- 12/17 05:45 COA: 4,000 dead seniors still on PhilHealth database
- 12/17 05:35 SC: Suspension of single, pregnant teacher illegal
- 12/16 18:23 Marcos on current state of PH: We’re quite stable amid political noise
- 12/16 05:33 Island Cove’s jobless: The other side of the Pogo ban
- 12/15 17:47 Dolly de Leon says a celeb’s craft deserves more focus than personal life
- 12/15 05:50 Senate bill forfeits illegal Pogo assets in favor of gov’t
- 12/15 05:25 DBM opens e-market for gov’t suppliers
- 12/15 02:03 Engineers build innovative roof manufacturing business
- 12/14 09:25 AI solar boat cleans 2.5 million liters of river water daily
- 12/14 08:40 AI agents will become brand ambassadors in 'Agentic Era' – study
- 12/14 05:55 House panel: Ex-president Duterte center of grand criminal enterprise
- 12/14 05:30 SMNI duo ordered to pay TV journalist P2M in damages
- 12/14 04:40 Negros Occidental declares state of calamity after Kanlaon blast
- 12/13 12:48 Harvard opens access to 1 million books for training AI models
- 12/13 12:21 Marcos aims to make PH military a 'world-class force'
- 12/13 11:39 Philippines deports 2,300 Pogo workers to China, other Asian countries
- 12/13 10:01 Gov’t eyes more diversified external financing before losing ODA perks
- 12/13 08:55 Teacher uses this trick to check students’ AI homework
- 12/13 05:30 Seized Pogo properties pose next gov’t challenge
- 12/13 02:32 It’s final: BCDA regains control of John Hay
- 12/12 22:14 2 more PH nature reserves tagged of ‘international importance’
- 12/12 10:59 VP Sara Duterte wrong in saying DOJ is ‘biased’ in probing her – exec
- 12/12 09:14 AI’s real impact on the global economy
- 12/12 05:48 Fisherfolk to SC: Void Manila Bay reclamation works
- 12/11 17:30 VP Sara Duterte considering hiring private security force
- 12/11 15:09 Local identity fraud cases surged 119% this year — study
- 12/11 14:24 DA bans poultry from The Netherlands
- 12/11 14:10 PDEA raises alarm over marijuana's growing popularity as holidays near
- 12/11 11:38 Marcos vows to make overseas work a choice, not a necessity
- 12/11 11:14 Readers more likely to distrust news from AI articles – study
- 12/11 07:32 Pogo phaseout in full swing; only 17 remain
- 12/11 05:55 Marcos rules out warship deployment in West Philippine Sea
- 12/11 02:04 World Bank trims PH growth outlook
- 12/10 15:34 China’s acts of war in West PH Sea accelerating ecological ruin
- 12/10 10:18 LTO vows stricter regulation of motorcycle taxis
- 12/10 05:50 Secret fund use hits P10B; OVP outspends 4 security agencies
- 12/10 05:45 Over 100 kilos of uranium seized in Pasay, CDO and Mandaue
- 12/10 04:40 Thousands evacuated as Mt. Kanlaon erupts anew
- 12/10 02:11 PH emerges as hot spot for RE investments
- 12/09 08:00 105 y.o. saved from stroke through advanced procedure in The Medical City
- 12/09 05:55 Chinese vessel hits BFAR ship with laser six times
- 12/09 05:50 Kalookan bishop, drug war critic is PH 10th cardinal
- 12/09 04:35 Eastern Samar has ‘fastest’ economic growth in Eastern Visayas
- 12/08 02:04 Demand for first-class seats rising among Filipino jetsetters
